Id Choose You Again Forester Sisters

Mythological human who tin transform into a wolflike creature

Werewolf

Woodcut of a werewolf attack past Lucas Cranach der Ältere, 1512
Grouping	Mythology
Other name(s)	Lycanthrope

In folklore, a werewolf ^[a] (Old English: werwulf , "human being-wolf"), or occasionally lycanthrope (Greek: λυκάνθρωπος lukánthrōpos, "wolf-human"), is a human with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf (or, especially in mod picture show, a therianthropic hybrid wolf-like brute), either purposely or later on being placed under a expletive or affliction (oft a bite or scratch from another werewolf) with the transformations occurring on the nighttime of a total moon. Early on sources for belief in this ability or disease, called lycanthropy , are Petronius (27–66) and Gervase of Tilbury (1150–1228).

The werewolf is a widespread concept in European folklore, existing in many variants, which are related past a common development of a Christian interpretation of underlying European folklore adult during the medieval catamenia. From the early modern period, werewolf beliefs also spread to the New World with colonialism. Conventionalities in werewolves adult in parallel to the belief in witches, in the class of the Belatedly Middle Ages and the Early Modern period. Similar the witchcraft trials equally a whole, the trial of supposed werewolves emerged in what is now Switzerland (particularly the Valais and Vaud) in the early on 15th century and spread throughout Europe in the 16th, peaking in the 17th and subsiding by the 18th century.

The persecution of werewolves and the associated folklore is an integral part of the "witch-chase" phenomenon, albeit a marginal one, accusations of lycanthropy being involved in only a small fraction of witchcraft trials.^[b] During the early menstruation, accusations of lycanthropy (transformation into a wolf) were mixed with accusations of wolf-riding or wolf-charming. The case of Peter Stumpp (1589) led to a significant meridian in both interest in and persecution of supposed werewolves, primarily in French-speaking and German-speaking Europe. The phenomenon persisted longest in Bavaria and Austria, with persecution of wolf-charmers recorded until well after 1650, the concluding cases taking place in the early 18th century in Carinthia and Styria.^[c]

After the stop of the witch-trials, the werewolf became of interest in folklore studies and in the emerging Gothic horror genre; werewolf fiction as a genre has pre-modern precedents in medieval romances (eastward.thousand. Bisclavret and Guillaume de Palerme) and developed in the 18th century out of the "semi-fictional" chap volume tradition. The trappings of horror literature in the 20th century became role of the horror and fantasy genre of modern pop culture.

Names

The discussion werewolf comes from the Old English language word werwulf, a chemical compound of wer "man" and wulf "wolf". The just Old High German testimony is in the form of a given name, Weriuuolf, although an early Middle High german werwolf is found in Burchard of Worms and Berthold of Regensburg. The word or concept does not occur in medieval German verse or fiction, gaining popularity only from the 15th century. Middle Latin gerulphus Anglo-Norman garwalf, Old Frankish *wariwulf.^{[1] [two]} Old Norse had the cognate varúlfur, but because of the loftier importance of werewolves in Norse mythology, there were alternative terms such as ulfhéðinn ("i in wolf-skin", referring still to the totemistic or cultic adoption of wolf-nature rather than the superstitious belief in actual shapeshifting). In modern Scandinavian, kveldulf was also used "evening-wolf", presumably after the proper noun of Kveldulf Bjalfason, a historical berserker of the 9th century who figures in the Icelandic sagas.

The term lycanthropy, referring both to the ability to transform oneself into a wolf and to the act of so doing, comes from Ancient Greek λυκάνθρωπος lukánthropos (from λύκος lúkos "wolf" and ἄνθρωπος, ánthrōpos "man").^[3] The word does occur in aboriginal Greek sources, only only in Late Artifact, simply rarely, and just in the context of clinical lycanthropy described past Galen, where the patient had the ravenous appetite and other qualities of a wolf; the Greek word attains some currency just in Byzantine Greek, featuring in the tenth-century encyclopedia Suda.^[four] Utilize of the Greek-derived lycanthropy in English language occurs in learned writing beginning in the later 16th century (first recorded 1584 in The Discoverie of Witchcraft by Reginald Scot, who argued against the reality of werewolves; "Lycanthropia is a disease, and non a transformation." 5. i. 92), at first explicitly for clinical lycanthropy, i.e. the type of insanity where the patient imagines to have transformed into a wolf, and not in reference to supposedly existent shapeshifting. Utilize of lycanthropy for supposed shapeshifting is much later, introduced ca. 1830.

Slavic uses the term vlko-dlak (Polish wilkołak, Czech vlkodlak, Slovak vlkolak, Serbo-Croatian вукодлак - vukodlak, Slovenian volkodlak, Bulgarian върколак/vrkolak, Belarusian ваўкалак/vaukalak, Ukrainian вовкулака/vovkulaka), literally "wolf-pare", paralleling the One-time Norse ulfhéðinn. However, the discussion is not attested in the medieval period. The Slavic term was loaned into modern Greek every bit Vrykolakas. Baltic has related terms, Lithuanian vilkolakis and vilkatas, Latvian vilkatis and vilkacis. The proper noun vurdalak (вурдалак) for the Slavic vampire ("ghoul, revenant") is a corruption due to the Russian poet Alexander Pushkin, which was afterward widely spread by A.K. Tolstoy in his novella The Family of the Vourdalak (composed in French, only offset published in a Russian translation in 1884).

History

Indo-European comparative mythology

Dolon wearing a wolf-skin. Attic reddish-effigy vase, c. 460 BC.

The werewolf folklore institute in Europe harks back to a mutual development during the Middle Ages, arising in the context of Christianisation, and the associated interpretation of pre-Christian mythology in Christian terms. Their underlying common origin can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European mythology, where lycanthropy is reconstructed every bit an aspect of the initiation of the warrior course. This is reflected in Fe Age Europe in the Tierkrieger depictions from the Germanic sphere, among others. The standard comparative overview of this aspect of Indo-European mythology is McCone (1987).^[5] Such transformations of "men into wolves" in infidel cult were associated with the devil from the early medieval perspective.

The concept of the werewolf in Western and Northern Europe is strongly influenced by the role of the wolf in Germanic paganism (e.g. the French loup-garou is ultimately a loan from the Germanic term), just at that place are related traditions in other parts of Europe which were not necessarily influenced past Germanic tradition, especially in Slavic Europe and the Balkans, and perchance in areas bordering the Indo-European sphere (the Caucasus) or where Indo-European cultures have been replaced past military conquest in the medieval era (Republic of hungary, Anatolia).^{[ clarification needed ]}

In his Man into Wolf (1948), Robert Eisler tried to bandage the Indo-European tribal names meaning "wolf" or "wolf-men" in terms of "the European transition from fruit gathering to predatory hunting."^{[ clarification needed ] [6]}

Classical antiquity

A few references to men irresolute into wolves are found in Ancient Greek literature and mythology. Herodotus, in his Histories,^[seven] wrote that the Neuri, a tribe he places to the north-east of Scythia, were all transformed into wolves once every year for several days, and then changed back to their man shape. This tale was besides mentioned by Pomponius Mela.^[8]

In the 2nd century BC, the Greek geographer Pausanias related the story of King Lycaon of Arcadia, who was transformed into a wolf because he had sacrificed a child in the altar of Zeus Lycaeus.^[nine] In the version of the fable told by Ovid in his Metamorphoses,^[10] when Zeus visits Lycaon disguised equally a mutual man, Lycaon wants to test if he is really a god. To that end, he kills a Molossian earnest and serve his entrails to Zeus. Disgusted, the god turns Lycaon into a wolf. Still, in other accounts of the legend, like that of Apollodorus' Bibliotheca,^[eleven] Zeus blasts him and his sons with thunderbolts as penalization.

Pausanias likewise relates the story of an Arcadian homo called Damarchus of Parrhasia, who was turned into a wolf later on tasting the entrails of a human being child sacrificed to Zeus Lycaeus. He was restored to human class 10 years later and went on to become an Olympic champion.^[12] This tale is also recounted by Pliny the Elderberry, who calls the man Demaenetus quoting Agriopas.^[13] Co-ordinate to Pausanias, this was non a one-off event, only that men have been transformed into wolves during the sacrifices to Zeus Lycaeus since the time of Lycaon. If they abstain of tasting man flesh while being wolves, they would exist restored to human class nine years later, but if they do they will remains wolves forever.^[ix]

Pliny the Elder likewise recounts some other tale of lycanthropy. Quoting Euanthes,^[fourteen] he mentions that in Arcadia, once a year a man was called by lot from the Anthus' clan. The called man was escorted to a marsh in the area, where he hung his clothes into an oak tree, swam across the marsh and transformed into a wolf, joining a pack for nine years. If during these nine years he refrained from tasting human flesh, he returned to the aforementioned marsh, swam back and recovered his previous human being form, with nine years added to his appearance.^[15] Ovid also relates stories of men who roamed the woods of Arcadia in the form of wolves.^{[16] [17]}

Virgil, in his poetic work Eclogues, wrote about a homo chosen Moeris, who used herbs and poisons picked in his native Pontus to turn himself into a wolf.^[18] In prose, the Satyricon, written circa Advertisement sixty by Gaius Petronius Arbiter, one of the characters, Niceros, tells a story at a banquet about a friend who turned into a wolf (chs. 61–62). He describes the incident as follows, "When I await for my buddy I run across he'd stripped and piled his wearing apparel past the roadside... He pees in a circumvolve round his clothes and then, only like that, turns into a wolf!... afterward he turned into a wolf he started howling and and so ran off into the forest."^[nineteen]

Early Christian authors also mentioned werewolves. In The Urban center of God, Augustine of Hippo gives an account similar to that plant in Pliny the Elder. Augustine explains that "Information technology is very generally believed that by certain witches spells men may exist turned into wolves..."^[20] Concrete metamorphosis was too mentioned in the Capitulatum Episcopi, attributed to the Council of Ancyra in the fourth century, which became the Church's doctrinal text in relation to magic, witches, and transformations such as those of werewolves.^[21] The Capitulatum Episcopi states that "Whoever believes that annihilation can be...transformed into another species or likeness, except past God Himself...is beyond dubiety an heathen.'^[21]

In these works of Roman writers, werewolves oftentimes receive the name versipellis ("turnskin"). Augustine instead uses the phrase "in lupum fuisse mutatum" (changed into the form of a wolf) to describe the physical metamorphosis of werewolves, which is similar to phrases used in the medieval period.

Middle Ages

At that place is evidence of widespread belief in werewolves in medieval Europe. This evidence spans much of the Continent, also as the British Isles. Werewolves were mentioned in Medieval law codes, such equally that of Male monarch Cnut, whose Ecclesiastical Ordinances inform us that the codes aim to ensure that "…the madly audacious werewolf do non too widely devastate, nor seize with teeth besides many of the spiritual flock.'^[22] Liutprand of Cremona reports a rumor that Bajan, son of Simeon I of Republic of bulgaria, could employ magic to turn himself into a wolf.^[23] The works of Augustine of Hippo had a large influence on the development of Western Christianity, and were widely read by churchmen of the medieval menstruum; and these churchmen occasionally discussed werewolves in their works. Famous examples include Gerald of Wales'southward Werewolves of Ossory, found in his Topographica Hibernica, and in Gervase of Tilbury's Otia Imperiala, both written for royal audiences.

Gervase reveals to the reader that conventionalities in such transformations (he also mentions women turning into cats and into snakes) was widespread across Europe; he uses the phrase "que ita dinoscuntur" when discussing these metamorphoses, which translates to "it is known". Gervase, who was writing in Germany, also tells the reader that the transformation of men into wolves cannot exist easily dismissed, for "...in England we have frequently seen men alter into wolves" ("Vidimus enim frequenter in Anglia per lunationes homines in lupos mutari…").^[24] Farther bear witness of the widespread belief in werewolves and other man-animal transformations can be seen in theological attacks made against such beliefs. Conrad of Hirsau, writing in the 11th century, forbids the reading of stories in which a person's reason is obscured following such a transformation.^[25] Conrad specifically refers to the tales of Ovid in his tract. Pseudo-Augustine, writing in the 12th century, follows Augustine of Hippo's argument that no physical transformation can be made by any simply God, stating that "...the body corporeally [cannot], be changed into the material limbs of any animal.'^[26]

Marie de France'southward poem Bisclavret (c. 1200) is another example, in which the eponymous nobleman Bisclavret, for reasons non described, had to transform into a wolf every calendar week. When his treacherous wife stole his article of clothing needed to restore his human being form, he escaped the king's wolf hunt by imploring the king for mercy and accompanied the king thereafter. His behavior at court was gentle, until his married woman and her new hubby appeared at court, so much so that his mean set on on the couple was deemed justly motivated, and the truth was revealed. This lai (a blazon of Breton sung-poem) follows many themes found within other werewolf tales - the removal of clothing and attempting to refrain from the consumption of homo flesh can be found in Pliny the Elder, also as in the second of Gervase of Tilbury's werewolf stories, well-nigh a werewolf by the name of Chaucevaire. Marie also reveals to the states the existence of werewolf belief in Breton and Norman French republic, by telling us the Franco-Norman word for werewolf: garwulf, which, she explains, are common in that part of France, where "...many men turned into werewolves".^[27] Gervase also supports this terminology when he tells the states that the French utilise the term "gerulfi" to describe what the English phone call "werewolves".^[28] Melion and Biclarel are two anonymous lais that share the theme of a werewolf knight being betrayed by his wife.^[29]

The German language give-and-take werwolf is recorded by Burchard von Worms in the 11th century, and by Bertold of Regensburg in the 13th, only is not recorded in all of medieval German poetry or fiction. While Baring-Gould argues that references to werewolves were also rare in England, presumably because any significance the "wolf-men" of Germanic paganism had carried, the associated beliefs and practices had been successfully repressed afterwards Christianization (or if they persisted, they did so outside of the sphere of literacy available to the states), we have sources other than those mentioned to a higher place.^[thirty] Such examples of werewolves in Ireland and the British Isles can be found in the work of the ninth century Welsh monk Nennius; female werewolves announced in the Irish piece of work Tales of the Elders, from the 12th century; and Welsh werewolves in the 12th-13th century Mabinogion.

In 1539, Martin Luther used the form beerwolf to describe a hypothetical ruler worse than a tyrant who must exist resisted.^[31]

The Germanic pagan traditions associated with wolf-men persisted longest in the Scandinavian Viking Age. Harald I of Norway is known to accept had a torso of Úlfhednar (wolf-coated [men]), which are mentioned in the Vatnsdœla saga, Haraldskvæði, and the Völsunga saga, and resemble some werewolf legends. The Úlfhednar were fighters like to the berserkers, though they dressed in wolf hides rather than those of bears and were reputed to aqueduct the spirits of these animals to enhance effectiveness in battle.^[32] These warriors were resistant to pain and killed viciously in boxing, much like wild animals. Úlfhednar and berserkers are closely associated with the Norse god Odin.

The Scandinavian traditions of this period may have spread to Kievan Rus', giving rising to the Slavic "werewolf" tales. The 11th-century Belarusian Prince Vseslav of Polotsk was considered to have been a werewolf, capable of moving at superhuman speeds, as recounted in The Tale of Igor'due south Campaign:

Vseslav the prince judged men; as prince, he ruled towns; only at nighttime he prowled in the guise of a wolf. From Kiev, prowling, he reached, before the cocks crew, Tmutorokan. The path of Corking Sun, every bit a wolf, prowling, he crossed. For him in Polotsk they rang for matins early at St. Sophia the bells; just he heard the ringing in Kiev.

The situation as described during the medieval period gives ascent to the dual class of werewolf folklore in Early Modern Europe. On one manus the "Germanic" werewolf, which becomes associated with the witchcraft panic from around 1400, and on the other hand the "Slavic" werewolf or vlkolak, which becomes associated with the concept of the revenant or "vampire". The "eastern" werewolf-vampire is found in the sociology of Central and Eastern Europe, including Hungary, Romania and the Balkans, while the "western" werewolf-wizard is found in France, German-speaking Europe and in the Baltic.

Early modern history

There were numerous reports of werewolf attacks – and consistent court trials – in 16th-century France. In some of the cases there was articulate evidence against the accused of murder and cannibalism, only none of association with wolves; in other cases people have been terrified by such creatures, such as that of Gilles Garnier in Dole in 1573, there was clear evidence against some wolf simply none against the defendant.^{[ commendation needed ]}

Existence a werewolf was a common allegation in witch trials throughout their history, and it featured even in the Valais witch trials, one of the earliest such trials altogether, in the starting time half of the 15th century. Likewise, in the Vaud, child-eating werewolves were reported as early on equally 1448. A peak of attention to lycanthropy came in the late 16th to early 17th century, every bit part of the European witch-hunts. A number of treatises on werewolves were written in France during 1595 and 1615. Werewolves were sighted in 1598 in Anjou, and a teenage werewolf was sentenced to life imprisonment in Bordeaux in 1603. Henry Boguet wrote a lengthy chapter near werewolves in 1602. In the Vaud, werewolves were bedevilled in 1602 and in 1624. A treatise past a Vaud pastor in 1653, however, argued that lycanthropy was purely an illusion. After this, the only further record from the Vaud dates to 1670: it is that of a boy who claimed he and his mother could change themselves into wolves, which was, nevertheless, not taken seriously. At the beginning of the 17th century witchcraft was prosecuted by James I of England, who regarded "warwoolfes" as victims of mirage induced by "a natural superabundance of melancholic".^[33] After 1650, conventionalities in Lycanthropy had mostly disappeared from French-speaking Europe, as evidenced in Diderot's Encyclopedia, which attributed reports of lycanthropy to a "disorder of the encephalon.^[34] although there were continuing reports of boggling wolflike beasts but they were non considered to exist werewolves. One such study concerned the Brute of Gévaudan which terrorized the full general area of the former province of Gévaudan, now chosen Lozère, in southward-central French republic; from the years 1764 to 1767, information technology killed upwards of 80 men, women, and children. The office of Europe which showed more vigorous interest in werewolves after 1650 was the Holy Roman Empire. At least nine works on lycanthropy were printed in Deutschland between 1649 and 1679. In the Austrian and Bavarian Alps, belief in werewolves persisted well into the 18th century.^[35] In any case, as late every bit in 1853, in Galicia, northwestern Spain, Manuel Blanco Romasanta was judged and condemned as the author of a number of murders, only he claimed to be not guilty because of his condition of lobishome, werewolf.

Until the 20th century, wolf attacks on humans were an occasional, only all the same widespread characteristic of life in Europe.^[36] Some scholars accept suggested that it was inevitable that wolves, existence the most feared predators in Europe, were projected into the sociology of evil shapeshifters. This is said to be corroborated past the fact that areas devoid of wolves typically utilise dissimilar kinds of predator to fill up the niche; werehyenas in Africa, weretigers in India,^[32] likewise every bit werepumas ("runa uturuncu")^{[37] [38]} and werejaguars ("yaguaraté-abá" or "tigre-capiango")^{[39] [forty]} in southern South America.

An idea is explored in Sabine Baring-Gould's work The Book of Werewolves is that werewolf legends may have been used to explicate serial killings. Perhaps the most infamous example is the case of Peter Stumpp (executed in 1589), the German language farmer, and alleged serial killer and carnivorous, also known as the Werewolf of Bedburg.^[41]

Asian cultures

In Asian Cultures^{[ which? ]}, the "were" equivalent is a weretiger or wereleopard. (See werecats)

Common Turkic folklore holds a different, reverential light to the werewolf legends in that Turkic Primal Asian shamans afterwards performing long and arduous rites would voluntarily be able to transform into the humanoid "Kurtadam" (literally meaning Wolfman). Since the wolf was the totemic ancestor animal of the Turkic peoples, they would exist respectful of whatever shaman who was in such a grade.

Lycanthropy as a medical condition

Some mod researchers take tried to explain the reports of werewolf behaviour with recognised medical atmospheric condition. Dr Lee Illis of Guy'southward Hospital in London wrote a newspaper in 1963 entitled On Porphyria and the Aetiology of Werewolves, in which he argues that historical accounts on werewolves could accept in fact been referring to victims of congenital porphyria, stating how the symptoms of photosensitivity, reddish teeth and psychosis could have been grounds for accusing a sufferer of beingness a werewolf.^[42] This is however argued against by Woodward, who points out how mythological werewolves were almost invariably portrayed equally resembling true wolves, and that their human being forms were rarely physically conspicuous equally porphyria victims.^[32] Others have pointed out the possibility of historical werewolves having been sufferers of hypertrichosis, a hereditary condition manifesting itself in excessive hair growth. However, Woodward dismissed the possibility, equally the rarity of the affliction ruled it out from happening on a big scale, equally werewolf cases were in medieval Europe.^[32] People suffering from Down's syndrome take been suggested past some scholars to have been possible originators of werewolf myths.^[43] Woodward suggested rabies equally the origin of werewolf behavior, claiming remarkable similarities between the symptoms of that disease and some of the legends. Woodward focused on the idea that being bitten by a werewolf could effect in the victim turning into 1, which suggested the idea of a transmittable affliction similar rabies.^[32] However, the thought that lycanthropy could be transmitted in this style is not part of the original myths and legends and merely appears in relatively recent beliefs. Lycanthropy can besides exist met with as the main content of a delusion, for example, the case of a adult female has been reported who during episodes of acute psychosis complained of becoming four different species of animals.^[44]

Folk beliefs

A German woodcut from 1722

Characteristics

The behavior classed together under lycanthropy are far from uniform, and the term is somewhat capriciously applied. The transformation may be temporary or permanent; the were-animal may exist the human being himself metamorphosed; may exist his double whose activity leaves the real homo to all advent unchanged; may be his soul, which goes forth seeking whomever it may devour, leaving its trunk in a country of trance; or it may be no more than the messenger of the human being, a real animal or a familiar spirit, whose intimate connectedness with its owner is shown past the fact that any injury to it is believed, past a phenomenon known as repercussion, to cause a corresponding injury to the human.

Werewolves were said in European folklore to bear tell-tale physical traits even in their human being grade. These included the meeting of both eyebrows at the bridge of the olfactory organ, curved fingernails, low-set ears and a swinging stride. One method of identifying a werewolf in its human form was to cutting the flesh of the defendant, under the pretense that fur would be seen within the wound. A Russian superstition recalls a werewolf can be recognized past bristles nether the tongue.^[32] The advent of a werewolf in its brute form varies from culture to culture, though it is nigh commonly portrayed as beingness indistinguishable from ordinary wolves save for the fact that it has no tail (a trait thought characteristic of witches in animal form), is often larger, and retains human eyes and a vox. Co-ordinate to some Swedish accounts, the werewolf could be distinguished from a regular wolf by the fact that information technology would run on iii legs, stretching the fourth ane backwards to expect like a tail.^[45] After returning to their human forms, werewolves are ordinarily documented every bit becoming weak, debilitated and undergoing painful nervous depression.^[32] One universally reviled trait in medieval Europe was the werewolf's addiction of devouring recently cached corpses, a trait that is documented extensively, particularly in the Annales Medico-psychologiques in the 19th century.^[32]

Becoming a werewolf

Diverse methods for becoming a werewolf take been reported, 1 of the simplest being the removal of clothing and putting on a belt fabricated of wolfskin, probably as a substitute for the supposition of an entire animal skin (which likewise is ofttimes described).^[46] In other cases, the body is rubbed with a magic salve.^[46] Drinking rainwater out of the footprint of the brute in question or from certain enchanted streams were also considered effectual modes of accomplishing metamorphosis.^[47] The 16th-century Swedish writer Olaus Magnus says that the Livonian werewolves were initiated by draining a loving cup of specially prepared beer and repeating a set formula. Ralston in his Songs of the Russian People gives the form of incantation still familiar in Russian federation. In Italy, France and Frg, it was said that a homo or woman could plow into a werewolf if he or she, on a certain Wednesday or Fri, slept outside on a summer night with the full moon shining directly on his or her face.^[32]

In other cases, the transformation was supposedly accomplished past Satanic allegiance for the well-nigh loathsome ends, often for the sake of sating a craving for human flesh. "The werewolves", writes Richard Verstegan (Restitution of Decayed Intelligence, 1628),

are certayne sorcerers, who having annoynted their bodies with an ointment which they make by the instinct of the devil, and putting on a certayne inchaunted girdle, does not only unto the view of others seem as wolves, simply to their ain thinking accept both the shape and nature of wolves, so long equally they wear the said girdle. And they do dispose themselves equally very wolves, in worrying and killing, and most of humane creatures.

The phenomenon of repercussion, the power of animal metamorphosis, or of sending out a familiar, real or spiritual, as a messenger, and the supernormal powers conferred by association with such a familiar, are also attributed to the magician, male and female, all the world over; and witch superstitions are closely parallel to, if not identical with, lycanthropic beliefs, the occasional involuntary graphic symbol of lycanthropy being almost the sole distinguishing characteristic. In another direction the phenomenon of repercussion is asserted to manifest itself in connection with the bush-soul of the West African and the nagual of Central America; but though there is no line of demarcation to be fatigued on logical grounds, the assumed power of the sorcerer and the intimate clan of the bush-soul or the nagual with a human being are not termed lycanthropy.

The curse of lycanthropy was also considered by some scholars equally existence a divine punishment. Werewolf literature shows many examples of God or saints allegedly cursing those who invoked their wrath with lycanthropy. Such is the case of Lycaon, who was turned into a wolf past Zeus as penalization for slaughtering i of his own sons and serving his remains to the gods as a dinner. Those who were excommunicated by the Roman Catholic Church were also said to become werewolves.^[32]

The ability of transforming others into wild beasts was attributed non only to malignant sorcerers, but to Christian saints too. Omnes angeli, boni et Republic of mali, ex virtute naturali habent potestatem transmutandi corpora nostra ("All angels, good and bad take the power of transmutating our bodies") was the dictum of St. Thomas Aquinas. St. Patrick was said to have transformed the Welsh King Vereticus into a wolf; Natalis supposedly cursed an illustrious Irish family whose members were each doomed to be a wolf for seven years. In other tales the divine bureau is even more than directly, while in Russia, once more, men supposedly became werewolves when incurring the wrath of the Devil.

A notable exception to the association of Lycanthropy and the Devil, comes from a rare and lesser known account of an 80-year-quondam man named Thiess. In 1692, in Jürgensburg, Livonia, Thiess testified under oath that he and other werewolves were the Hounds of God.^[48] He claimed they were warriors who descended into hell to boxing witches and demons. Their efforts ensured that the Devil and his minions did not deport off the grain from local failed crops downwards to hell. Thiess was steadfast in his assertions, claiming that werewolves in Germany and Russia also did battle with the devil's minions in their own versions of hell, and insisted that when werewolves died, their souls were welcomed into sky as reward for their service. Thiess was ultimately sentenced to x lashes for idolatry and superstitious belief.

Remedies

Various methods have existed for removing the werewolf form. In antiquity, the Aboriginal Greeks and Romans believed in the ability of burnout in curing people of lycanthropy. The victim would exist subjected to long periods of physical activity in the hope of beingness purged of the malady. This exercise stemmed from the fact that many alleged werewolves would be left feeling weak and devitalized after committing depredations.^[32]

In medieval Europe, traditionally, at that place are iii methods one can use to cure a victim of lycanthropy; medicinally (normally via the utilize of wolfsbane), surgically, or past exorcism. Withal, many of the cures advocated by medieval medical practitioners proved fatal to the patients. A Sicilian conventionalities of Standard arabic origin holds that a werewolf can be cured of its ailment by hitting it on the forehead or scalp with a knife. Some other belief from the same culture involves the piercing of the werewolf's easily with nails. Sometimes, less farthermost methods were used. In the German language lowland of Schleswig-Holstein, a werewolf could be cured if ane were to merely address it iii times by its Christian name, while one Danish belief holds that only scolding a werewolf will cure it.^[32] Conversion to Christianity is also a common method of removing lycanthropy in the medieval menstruation; a devotion to St. Hubert has too been cited equally both cure for and protection from lycanthropes.

Connection to revenants

Before the finish of the 19th century, the Greeks believed that the corpses of werewolves, if not destroyed, would return to life in the grade of wolves or hyenas which prowled battlefields, drinking the claret of dying soldiers. In the same vein, in some rural areas of Germany, Poland and Northern France, it was once believed that people who died in mortal sin came back to life as blood-drinking wolves. These "undead" werewolves would return to their human corpse grade at daylight. They were dealt with by decapitation with a spade and exorcism past the parish priest. The head would then exist thrown into a stream, where the weight of its sins was thought to counterbalance it downwards. Sometimes, the same methods used to dispose of ordinary vampires would exist used. The vampire was also linked to the werewolf in East European countries, especially Bulgaria, Serbia and Slovenia. In Serbia, the werewolf and vampire are known collectively as vulkodlak.^[32]

Hungary and Balkans

In Hungarian sociology, the werewolves used to live especially in the region of Transdanubia, and it was thought that the ability to change into a wolf was obtained in the infant historic period, subsequently the suffering of abuse by the parents or by a curse. At the age of 7 the boy or the girl leaves the house, goes hunting past dark and can modify to a person or wolf whenever he wants. The curse can likewise be obtained when in the adulthood the person passed three times through an curvation made of a Birch with the assistance of a wild rose's spine.

The werewolves were known to exterminate all kind of farm animals, especially sheep. The transformation unremarkably occurred during the winter solstice, Easter and a total moon. Later in the 17th and 18th century, the trials in Hungary not only were conducted against witches, only against werewolves too, and many records exist creating connections between both kinds. Likewise the vampires and werewolves are closely related in Hungary, existence both feared in the artifact.^[49]

Among the South Slavs, and besides among the ethnic Kashubian people in present-24-hour interval northern Poland, in that location was the belief that if a kid was born with hair, a birthmark or a caul on their head, they were supposed to possess shapeshifting abilities. Though capable of turning into any animal they wished, it was commonly believed that such people preferred to plough into a wolf.^[50]

Serbian vukodlaks traditionally had the habit of congregating annually in the wintertime months, when they would strip off their wolf skins and hang them from trees. They would and then get a hold of some other vulkodlak 's peel and burn information technology, releasing from its curse the vukodlak from whom the pare came.^[32]

Caucasus

Co-ordinate to Armenian lore, there are women who, in consequence of deadly sins, are condemned to spend seven years in wolf form.^[51] In a typical business relationship, a condemned adult female is visited by a wolfskin-toting spirit, who orders her to wear the skin, which causes her to acquire frightful cravings for human being flesh soon after. With her better nature overcome, the she-wolf devours each of her own children, so her relatives' children in order of relationship, and finally the children of strangers. She wanders but at night, with doors and locks springing open at her arroyo. When morning arrives, she reverts to homo form and removes her wolfskin. The transformation is generally said to be involuntary, but there are alternate versions involving voluntary metamorphosis, where the women can transform at volition.

Americas and Caribbean

The Naskapis believed that the caribou afterlife is guarded by giant wolves which kill careless hunters venturing too near. The Navajo people feared witches in wolf'south clothing called "Mai-cob".^[43] Woodward idea that these beliefs were due to the Norse colonization of the Americas.^[32] When the European colonization of the Americas occurred, the pioneers brought their own werewolf folklore with them and were later influenced past the lore of their neighbouring colonies and those of the Natives. Belief in the loup-garou present in Canada, the Upper and Lower Peninsulas of Michigan^[52] and upstate New York, originates from French sociology influenced by Native American stories on the Wendigo. In Mexico, there is a belief in a animate being called the nagual. In Haiti, there is a superstition that werewolf spirits known locally as Jé-rouge (red eyes) tin can possess the bodies of unwitting persons and nightly transform them into cannibalistic lupine creatures. The Haitian jé-rouges typically try to trick mothers into giving away their children voluntarily by waking them at night and asking their permission to have their child, to which the disoriented mother may either answer yes or no. The Haitian jé-rouges differ from traditional European werewolves by their habit of actively trying to spread their lycanthropic condition to others, much like vampires.^[32]

Modern reception

Werewolf fiction

Most modern fiction describes werewolves every bit vulnerable to silvery weapons and highly resistant to other injuries. This characteristic appears in German language sociology of the 19th century.^[53] The merits that the Beast of Gévaudan, an 18th-century wolf or wolflike animal, was shot by a silver bullet appears to take been introduced by novelists retelling the story from 1935 onwards and non in before versions.^{[54] [55] [56]} English folklore, prior to 1865, showed shapeshifters to be vulnerable to silver. "...till the publican shot a silverish button over their heads when they were instantly transformed into 2 ill-favoured old ladies..."^[57] c. 1640 the city of Greifswald, Frg was infested past werewolves. "A clever lad suggested that they gather all their silver buttons, goblets, belt buckles, and so forth, and melt them down into bullets for their muskets and pistols. ... this time they slaughtered the creatures and rid Greifswald of the lycanthropes."^[58]

The 1897 novel Dracula and the short story "Dracula's Invitee", both written by Bram Stoker, drew on earlier mythologies of werewolves and similar legendary demons and "was to voice the anxieties of an age", and the "fears of belatedly Victorian patriarchy".^[59] In "Dracula's Guest," a band of armed forces horsemen coming to the aid of the protagonist chase off Dracula, depicted as a great wolf stating the just way to kill information technology is by a "Sacred Bullet".^[60] This is likewise mentioned in the primary novel Dracula likewise. Count Dracula stated in the novel that legends of werewolves originated from his Szekely racial bloodline,^[61] who himself is too depicted with the ability to shapeshift into a wolf at will during the night but is unable to exercise so during the day except at apex.^[62]

The 1928 novel The Wolf's Bride: A Tale from Estonia, written by the Finnish author Aino Kallas, tells story of the forester Priidik's wife Aalo living in Hiiumaa in the 17th century, who became a werewolf under the influence of a malevolent woods spirit, too known as Diabolus Sylvarum.^[63]

The outset feature film to use an anthropomorphic werewolf was Werewolf of London in 1935. The master werewolf of this film is a dapper London scientist who retains some of his mode and near of his human features after his transformation,^[64] as lead actor Henry Hull was unwilling to spend long hours beingness fabricated upwardly past makeup creative person Jack Pierce.^[65] Universal Studios drew on a Balkan tale of a plant associated with lycanthropy as there was no literary work to describe upon, unlike the case with vampires. There is no reference to argent nor other aspects of werewolf lore such equally cannibalism.^[66]

A more tragic character is Lawrence Talbot, played by Lon Chaney Jr. in 1941's The Wolf Man. With Pierce'due south makeup more elaborate this time,^[67] the movie catapulted the werewolf into public consciousness.^[64] Sympathetic portrayals are few merely notable, such every bit the comedic merely tortured protagonist David Naughton in An American Werewolf in London,^[68] and a less anguished and more confident and charismatic Jack Nicholson in the 1994 film Wolf.^[69] Over time, the depiction of werewolves has gone from fully malevolent to even heroic creatures, such as in the Underworld and Twilight series, besides as Blood Lad, Dance in the Vampire Bund, Rosario + Vampire, and diverse other movies, anime, manga, and comic books.

Other werewolves are decidedly more willful and malevolent, such as those in the novel The Howling and its subsequent sequels and film adaptations. The form a werewolf assumes was by and large anthropomorphic in early on films such as The Wolf Man and Werewolf of London, merely a larger and powerful wolf in many later films.^[70]

Werewolves are often depicted as immune to harm caused past ordinary weapons, being vulnerable only to silverish objects, such as a silver-tipped cane, bullet or blade; this attribute was first adopted cinematically in The Wolf Man.^[67] This negative reaction to silvery is sometimes so strong that the mere touch of the metallic on a werewolf'south skin will cause burns. Current-day werewolf fiction most exclusively involves lycanthropy beingness either a hereditary status or existence transmitted similar an infectious affliction by the bite of another werewolf. In some fiction, the power of the werewolf extends to human being class, such as invulnerability to conventional injury due to their healing factor, superhuman speed and force and falling on their feet from high falls. Also aggressiveness and animalistic urges may be intensified and more hard to control (hunger, sexual arousal). Ordinarily in these cases the abilities are diminished in human being form. In other fiction information technology tin be cured by medicine men or antidotes.

Forth with the vulnerability to the silver bullet, the full moon being the cause of the transformation only became office of the depiction of werewolves on a widespread basis in the twentieth century.^[71] The kickoff movie to feature the transformative effect of the full moon was Frankenstein Meets the Wolf Man in 1943.^[72]

Werewolves are typically envisioned as "working-course" monsters, oft being low in socio-economical status, although they tin represent a variety of social classes and at times were seen every bit a manner of representing "aristocratic decadence" during 19th century horror literature.^{[73] [74] [75]}

Nazi Deutschland

Nazi Frg used Werwolf, every bit the mythical creature's name is spelled in German language, in 1942–43 as the codename for i of Hitler'south headquarters. In the war's final days, the Nazi "Operation Werwolf" aimed at creating a commando strength that would operate behind enemy lines as the Allies advanced through Germany itself.

Two fictional depictions of "Functioning Werwolf"—the The states television serial True Blood and the 2012 novel Wolf Hunter by J. L. Benét—mix the two meanings of "Werwolf" by depicting the 1945 diehard Nazi commandos equally being actual werewolves.^[76]

See also

• Damarchus
• Kitsune
• Nagual

Notes

1. ^ As well spelled werwolf. Usually pronounced , merely likewise sometimes or .
2. ^ Lorey (2000) records 280 known cases; this contrasts with a full number of 12,000 recorded cases of executions for witchcraft, or an estimated thousand total of virtually 60,000, corresponding to 2% or 0.5% respectively. The recorded cases span the period of 1407 to 1725, peaking during the period of 1575–1657.
3. ^ Lorey (2000) records six trials in the period 1701 and 1725, all in either Styria or Carinthia; 1701 Paul Perwolf of Wolfsburg, Obdach, Styria (executed); 1705 "Vlastl" of Murau, Styria (verdict unknown); 1705/6 six beggars in Wolfsberg, Carinthia (executed); 1707/8 iii shepherds in Leoben and Freyenstein, Styria (one lynching, two likely executions); 1718 Jakob Kranawitter, a mentally retarded beggar, in Rotenfel, Oberwolz, Styria (corporeal penalization); 1725: Paul Schäffer, beggar of St. Leonhard im Lavanttal, Carinthia (executed).

Citations

1. ^ "Werwolf" in Grimm, Deutsches Wörterbuch. "online version". uni-trier.de. Retrieved 2012-12-21 .
2. ^ "loup-garou". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (four ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 2006-01-13. Retrieved 2005-xi-xiii . "Appendix I: Indo-European Roots: w-ro-". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English language (iv ed.). 2000. Archived from the original on 2008-05-12.
3. ^ Rose, C. (2000). Giants, Monsters & Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend and Myth. New York: Norton. p. 230. ISBN0-393-32211-4.
4. ^ In the entry on Marcellus of Side, stating that this 2d-century author wrote about the topic of lycanthropy. (Μ 205) Μάρκελλος Σιδήτης, ἰατρός, ἐπὶ Μάρκου Ἀντωνίνου. οὗτος ἔγραψε δι' ἐπῶν ἡρωϊκῶν βιβλία ἰατρικὰ δύο καὶ μʹ, ἐν οἷς καὶ περὶ λυκανθρώπου. (cited after A. Adler, Suidae lexicon, Leipzig: Teubner, 1928-1935); run into Suda Online
5. ^ Kim R. McCone, "Hund, Wolf, und Krieger bei den Indogermanen" in Due west. Meid (ed.), Studien zum indogermanischen Wortschatz, Innsbruck, 1987, 101-154
6. ^ Eisler, Robert (1948). Man Into Wolf - An Anthropological Estimation of Sadism, Masochism, and Lycanthropy. ASIN B000V6D4PG.
7. ^ Herodotus. "Four.105". Histories.
8. ^ Pomponius Mela (1998). "ii.14". Clarification of the world. De chorographia.English language. University of Michigan Printing. ISBN9780472107735.
9. ^ ^{a b} Pausanias. "viii.2". Clarification of Greece.
10. ^ Ovid. "I 219-239". Metamorphoses.
11. ^ Apollodorus. "3.8.1". Bibliotheca.
12. ^ Pausanias 6.8.ii
13. ^ Pliny the Elderberry, Natural History, viii.82.
14. ^ Pliny the Elder, Natural History, 8.81.
15. ^ The tale probably relates to a rite of passage for Arcadian' youths.Ogden, Daniel (2002). Magic, Witchcraft, and Ghosts in the Greek and Roman Worlds: A Sourcebook. Oxford University Press. p. 178. ISBN0-19-513575-X.
16. ^ Ovid. "I". Metamorphoses.
17. ^ Ménard, Philippe (1984). "Les histoires de loup-garou au moyen-âge". Symposium in honorem prof. M. de Riquer (in French). Barcelona UP. pp. 209–38.
18. ^ Virgil. "viii". Eclogues. p. 98.
19. ^ Petronius (1996). Satyrica. R. Bracht Branham and Daniel Kinney. Berkeley: University of California. p. 56. ISBN0-520-20599-5.
20. ^ Augustine of Hippo, The City of God, XVIII.17
21. ^ ^{a b} "Canon Episcopi". www.personal.utulsa.edu . Retrieved 2020-03-27 .
22. ^ Otten, Charlotte F. (1986). The Lycanthropy Reader: Werewolves in Western Culture. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. pp. 5–half-dozen. ISBN0815623844.
23. ^ Antapodosis 3.29
24. ^ Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperiala, Book I, Chapter 15, translated and edited by S.East. Banks and J.West. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), 86 - 87.
25. ^ Georg Schepss, Conradus Hirsaugiensis (1889). Conradi Hirsaugiensis Dialogus super Auctores sive Didascalon: Eine Literaturgeschichte aus den XII (in Latin). Harvard University. A. Stuber.
26. ^ Pseudo-Augustine, Liber de Spiritu et Anima, Chapter 26, XVII
27. ^ Marie de France, "Bisclavret", translated by Glyn S. Burgess and Keith Busby, in The Lais of Marie de France (London: Penguin Books, 1999), 68.
28. ^ Gervase of Tilbury, Otia Imperiala, Volume I, Chapter xv, translated and edited past S.E. Banks and J.West. Binns, (Oxford: Oxford Academy Press, 2002), 87.
29. ^ Hopkins, Amanda (2005). Melion and Biclarel: Ii Old French Werewolf Lays. The Academy of Liverpool. ISBN0-9533816-ix-2 . Retrieved 26 May 2020.
30. ^ Baring-Gould, p. 100.
31. ^ Cynthia Grant Schonberger (January–March 1979). "Luther and the Justification of Resistance to Legitimate Dominance". Journal of the History of Ideas. University of Pennsylvania Press. forty (i): 3–twenty. doi:ten.2307/2709257. JSTOR 2709257. S2CID 55409226. ; every bit specified in Luther's Nerveless Works, 39(ii) 41-42
32. ^ ^{a b c d due east f grand h i j yard l m n o p} Woodward, Ian (1979). The Werewolf Delusion. Paddington Press. ISBN0-448-23170-0. ^{[ unreliable source? ] [ page needed ]}
33. ^ "iii". Demonologie.
34. ^ Hoyt, Nelly S.; Cassierer, Thomas, trans. (1965). The Encyclopedia: Selections: Diderot, d'Alembert and a Society of Men of Messages. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Merrill.
35. ^ E. William Monter, "Witchcraft in France and Switzerland" in Otten (ed.) A Lycanthropy reader (1986), 161-167.
36. ^ "Is the fearfulness of wolves justified? A Fennoscandian perspective" (PDF). Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 2003, Volumen 13, Numerus 1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2008-03-07. Retrieved 2008-05-09 .
37. ^ Facundo Quiroga, "The Tiger of the Argentine Prairies" and the Legend of the "runa uturuncu". (in Spanish)
38. ^ The Legend of the runa uturuncu in the Mythology of the Latin-American Guerilla. (in Spanish)
39. ^ The Guaraní Myth virtually the Origin of Human being Language and the Tiger-men. (in Spanish)
40. ^ J.B. Ambrosetti (1976). Fantasmas de la selva misionera ("Ghosts of the Misiones Jungle"). Editorial Convergencia: Buenos Aires.
41. ^ Steiger, Brad (2011). The Werewolf Book: The Encyclopedia of Shape-Shifting Beings. Visible Ink Printing. p. 267. ISBN978-1578593675.
42. ^ Illis, L (January 1964). "On Porphyria and the Ætiology of Werwolves". Proc R Soc Med. 57 (ane): 23–6. PMC1897308. PMID 14114172.
43. ^ ^{a b} Lopez, Barry (1978). Of Wolves and Men. New York: Scribner Classics. ISBN0-7432-4936-4. OCLC 54857556.
44. ^ Dening T R & W A (1989) Multiple serial lycanthropy. Psychopathology 22: 344-347
45. ^ Ebbe Schön (2011-05-16). "Varulv". Väsen (in Swedish). SVT. Archived from the original on 2011-04-14. Retrieved 2011-05-xvi .
46. ^ ^{a b} Bennett, Aaron. "Then, Yous Want to be a Werewolf?" Fate. Vol. 55, no. 6, Consequence 627. July 2002.
47. ^ O'Donnell, Elliot. Werwolves. Methuen. London. 1912. pp. 65-67.
48. ^ Gershenson, Daniel. Apollo the Wolf-God. (Journal of Indo- European Studies, Monograph, 8.) McLean, Virginia: Establish for the Study of Human being, 1991, ISBN 0-941694-38-0 pp. 136-7.
49. ^ Szabó, György. Mitológiai kislexikon, I-II., Budapest: Merényi Könyvkiadó (év nélkül) Mitólogiai kislexikon.
50. ^ Willis, Roy; Davidson, Hilda Ellis (1997). World Mythology: The Illustrated Guide. Piaktus. ISBN0-7499-1739-three. OCLC 37594992.
51. ^ The Fables of Mkhitar Gosh (New York, 1987), translated with an introduction by R. Bedrosian, edited past Elise Antreassian and illustrated by Anahid Janjigian
52. ^ Legends of Grosse Pointe.
53. ^ Ashliman, D. 50. "Werewolf Legends from Federal republic of germany". pitt.edu . Retrieved January 1, 2022.
54. ^ Robert Jackson (1995) Witchcraft and the Occult. Devizes, Quintet Publishing: 25.
55. ^ Baud'huin, Benoît; Bonet, Alain (1995). Gévaudan: petites histoires de la grande bête (in French). Ex Aequo Éditions. p. 193. ISBN978-2-37873-070-iii.
56. ^ Crouzet, Guy (2001). La grande peur du Gévaudan (in French). Guy Crouzet. pp. 156–158. ISBN2-9516719-0-3.
57. ^ Southward. Baring-Gould. "The Book of Were-Wolves". (1865)
58. ^ Temme, J.D.H. Die Volkssagen von Pommern und Rugen. Translated by D.L. Ashliman. Berlin: In de Nicolaischen Buchhandlung, 1840.
59. ^ Sellers, Susan. Myth and Fairy Tale in Contemporary Women'south Fiction, Palgrave Macmillan (2001) p. 85.
60. ^ Stoker, Brett. Dracula's Guest (PDF). p. 11. "A wolf--and withal not a wolf!" ... "No use trying for him without the sacred bullet," a third remarked
61. ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 3, Johnathon Harker's Periodical. p. 42. 'We Szekelys accept a right to exist proud, for in our veins flows the claret of many brave races who fought as the king of beasts fights, for lordship. Hither, in the whirlpool of European races, the Ugric tribe bore downwards from Iceland the fighting spirit which Thor and Wodin gave them, which their Berserkers displayed to such roughshod intent on the seaboards of Europe, aye, and of Asia and Africa likewise, till the peoples thought that the werewolves themselves had come. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
62. ^ Stoker, Bram. Dracula (PDF). Ch 18, Mina Harker's Journal. His power ceases, as does that all of all evil things, at the coming of the day. Just at certain times can he have limited freedom. If he be not at the place whither he is leap, he can only change himself at apex or verbal sunrise or sunset. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location (link)
63. ^ Chantal Bourgault Du Coudray, The Expletive of the Werewolf : Fantasy, Horror and the Animate being Within. London: I.B. Tauris, 2006. ISBN 9781429462655 (p. 112, 169)
64. ^ ^{a b} Searles B (1988). Films of Science Fiction and Fantasy. Harry North. Abrams. pp. 165–67. ISBN0-8109-0922-vii.
65. ^ Clemens, pp. 119-20.
66. ^ Clemens, pp. 117-18.
67. ^ ^{a b} Clemens, p. 120.
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69. ^ Steiger, Brad (1999). The Werewolf Volume: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. p. 330. ISBNone-57859-078-7. OCLC 41565057.
70. ^ Steiger, Brad (1999). The Werewolf Volume: The Encyclopedia of Shapeshifting Beings. Visible Ink. ISBNane-57859-078-7. OCLC 41565057. p. 17.
71. ^ Andrzej Wicher; Piotr Spyra; Joanna Matyjaszczyk (19 Nov 2014). Bones Categories of Fantastic Literature Revisited. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. pp. 95–96. ISBN978-1-4438-7143-3.
72. ^ Glut, Donald F. (2002). The Frankenstein Archive. McFarland. p. nineteen. ISBN0786413530.
73. ^ Crossen, Carys Elizabeth. The Nature of the Beast: Transformations of the Werewolf from the 1970s to the Twenty-first Century. Academy of Wales Press, 2019, p.206
74. ^ Senn, Bryan. The Werewolf Filmography: 300+ Movies. McFarland, 2017, p.8
75. ^ Wilson, Natalie. Seduced by Twilight: The attraction and contradictory letters of the pop saga. McFarland, 2014, p.39
76. ^ Boissoneault, Lorraine. "The Nazi Werewolves Who Terrorized Centrolineal Soldiers at the Stop of WWII". Smithsonian Magazine. The Smithsonian. Retrieved 27 May 2020.

References

Secondary sources

• Baring-Gould, Sabine (1865). The Book of Werewolves: Being an Account of a Terrible Superstition. London: Smith, Elder & Co. Google Books
• Douglas, Adam (1992). The Beast Within: A History of the Werewolf . London: Chapmans. ISBN0-380-72264-Ten.
• Goens, Jean (1993). Loups-garous, vampires et autres monstres : enquêtes médicales et littéraires. Paris: CNRS Editions.
• Grimm, Deutsche Mythologie, 4, ii. and 3.
• Hertz, Der Werwolf (Stuttgart, 1862)
• Lecouteux, Claude, Fées, Sorcières et Loups-garous, Éditions Imago, Paris (1992), trans. Clare Frock, Witches, Werewolves, and Fairies: Shapeshifters and Astral Doubles in the Middle Ages, Inner Traditions International, Rochester, Vermont (2003), ISBN 0-89281-096-3
• Leubuscher, Über die Wehrwölfe (1850)
• O'Donnell, Elliot (1912). Werewolves.
• Otten, Charlotte (ed.), A Lycanthropy reader: werewolves in Western culture, Syracuse University Printing, 1986.
• Sconduto, Leslie A. Metamorphoses of the werewolf: a literary study from antiquity through the Renaissance.
• Stewart, Caroline Taylor (1909). The origin of the werewolf superstition. University of Missouri Studies.
• Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Werwolf". Encyclopædia Britannica (11th ed.). Cambridge University Printing.

Primary sources

• Wolfeshusius, Johannes Fridericus. De Lycanthropia: An vere illi, ut fama est, luporum & aliarum bestiarum formis induantur. Problema philosophicum pro sententia Joan. Bodini ... adversus dissentaneas aliquorum opiniones noviter assertum... Leipzig: Typis Abrahami Lambergi, 1591. (In Latin; microfilm held past the U.s. National Library of Medicine)
• Prieur, Claude. Dialogue de la Lycanthropie: Ou transformation d'hommes en loups, vulgairement dits loups-garous, et si telle se peut faire. Louvain: J. Maes & P. Zangre, 1596.
• Bourquelot and Jean de Nynauld, De la Lycanthropie, Transformation et Extase des Sorciers (Paris, 1615).
• Summers, Montague, The Werewolf London: Yard. Paul, Trench, Trubner, 1933. (1st edition, reissued 1934 New York: E. P. Dutton; 1966 New Hyde Park, North.Y.: University Books; 1973 Secaucus, North.J.: Citadel Printing; 2003 Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, with new title The Werewolf in Lore and Legend). ISBN 0-7661-3210-2

External links

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Werewolf

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